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Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own ethnic, racial, or social group is either superior or the norm against which all other groups should be compared. While it can sometimes be a conscious belief, such as believing foods or customs of cultures aside from your own are strange or inferior, it’s more often an unconscious process.
In psychology, that conscious or unconscious ethnocentrism can influence research, lead to misdiagnosis, and cause serious harm to the communities that are overlooked or pathologized as abnormal for not conforming to Western norms.
In a 2010 review of psychological studies, researchers found that 96% of participants across all studies came from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. But these WEIRD societies represent just 12% of the global population. Studies also tended to skew toward White, middle-class, suburban communities within those WEIRD societies, making the sample size even less representative of the diversity of the human experience.
“Given that the social world is based on norms and mores of a group of people, oftentimes behavior that is seen as adaptive [or] maladaptive can be culturally informed as well,” explained Dr. K. Chinwe Idigo, a licensed psychologist who specializes in incorporating multicultural theory, social context, and social justice into her practice. “For example, customs, norms, and expectations of an immigrant family may differ from customs of a mainstream family living in the same community.”
This near-exclusive focus on the psychology of such a tiny sample size has led to the generalization of White, middle-class, suburban cultural values and ideas about mental health across the entire global population. The experience of a small subset of humanity is treated as the default or standard against which everyone else is compared—and when they don’t fit, they’re liable to be judged abnormal or unwell.
Clinical practice mirrors the ethnocentrism found in research. “Therapists are trained in colleges and universities where approximately 75% of faculty are White,” said Dr. Idigo.
Because the data and training are so heavily biased to such a small subset of the human population, it’s hard for mental healthcare providers to untangle that ethnocentrism in their own practice.
There are many examples of psychological theories or concepts that have long been believed to be universal or unchanging that ultimately don’t work when applied to non-WEIRD societies. “This shows up in therapeutic modalities that are normed on White culture and identity and often fall flat when used with clients from the Global Majority,” said Maryam Elbalghiti-Williams, LCSW-C, LICSW, CCTP-11, a licensed therapist who applies a culturally-responsive and multicultural approach to treatment.
Attachment theory, for example, argues that children develop their attachment style—or model of relationships—within the first three years of their lives and largely on the basis of how they relate to their primary caregiver.
The theory is based entirely on studies of American infants and later cross-cultural research has shown that it doesn’t hold up well in more collectivist cultures where children are raised by an entire community, rather than just by their immediate biological parents. Nevertheless, this theory has been used to justify removing Indigenous children from their communities and placing them in non-indigenous foster families, under the assumption that a permanent nuclear family is the best situation for the child.
The concept of trauma in psychiatry has also been criticized as ethnocentric. It treats trauma as an individualized problem, ignoring the prevalence of collective or intergenerational trauma experienced by marginalized groups. Definitions of what constitutes trauma is likewise often limited to personal forms of trauma, like physical or sexual abuse, and exclude systemic or historical trauma like racism, genocide, or colonialism.
This ethnocentrism in psychological research can bleed into how healthcare providers approach care. “These biases can lead to misdiagnoses or incorrect treatments, as well as a lack of understanding of the patient's cultural experiences,” said Gary Tucker, Chief Clinical Officer and Licensed Psychotherapist at D’Amore Mental Health.
Dr. Idigo added, “It might inform the treatment goals we establish for a client, as our biases influence our idea of what wellness looks like.”
For example, the narrow understanding of trauma as isolated, personal experiences like child abuse or war not only misses the experience of other kinds of trauma but also limits the tools healthcare providers have for treating trauma.
Exposure therapy, during which patients are encouraged to talk about their traumatic memories as a way of confronting them, is one of the primary methods used to treat PTSD. Another widely-used method is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), during which patients are meant to unlearn negative thought patterns that cause them to always fear catastrophic outcomes or be hyper-vigilant about avoiding potential dangers.
But, as one academic paper pointed out, neither of these methods really apply to the case of refugees fleeing violence. For one, the threat of violence not over, as the risk of being denied asylum or being tracked down by those who want to harm them persists. So the idea that fearing that possibility is simply a “negative thought pattern” that needs to be unlearned isn’t accurate here.
Moreover, during the strict asylum claim process, refugees are often forced to describe their trauma in great detail, sometimes over and over again, in order to convince authorities that their asylum claim is legitimate. Because of that, the common approach of confronting one’s memories through exposure therapy may not have much of a therapeutic effect.
As seen in the examples mentioned earlier, ethnocentrism can cause a lot of harm to the many, many people who are excluded from the research and clinical practice of psychology. Generalizations about how family dynamics should work can displace children. Narrow definitions of trauma can exclude people from treatment by failing to accurately diagnose their trauma or lead to inappropriate treatment plans. But it can also do harm in less overt ways.
“A key complaint I hear from clients who find me after several attempts at finding a therapist is that they felt unseen, like they couldn't show up fully as themselves with providers who lacked critical awareness of themselves and the impact of culture in the therapy room,” said Elbalghiti.
Even when a clinician isn’t overtly ethnocentric or consciously bias, then, this lack of awareness and training can render them unequipped to care for patients from historically marginalized and overlooked groups.
“This can leave certain populations without access to necessary services or treatments or make individuals from different backgrounds feel like their perspectives aren't accepted seriously,” said Tucker.
Cultural relativism refers to the awareness that your own culture is neither the norm nor the superior culture in the world. Instead of judging others according to your own cultural standards, you try to understand them through the lens of their own culture.
This awareness acts as an important counter to ethnocentric biases and assumptions, which can impact the way clinicians treat clients. For example, “Western Psychology's emphasis on individualism and individuation as a developmental imperative leads to pathologizing clients from collectivist cultures and labeling them as ‘enmeshed’ or lacking a sense of self,” said Elbalghiti.
Through the lens of cultural relativism, on the other hand, both researchers and clinicians would be better able to evaluate behavior and mental state according to the patient’s own terms. In Elbalghiti’s example, it would help them understand that the patient doesn’t necessarily lack a sense of self, but simply constructs that sense of self differently.
For those who want to get better at recognizing their own biases and providing more culturally sensitive care, the best thing you can do is educate yourself. “Mental health providers need to prioritize investing their time and financial resources in depth-oriented trainings and learning communities led by BIPOC clinicians that focus on raising critical consciousness about race and culture over one dimensional cultural competence trainings,” said Elbalghiti.
Talk to colleagues with different backgrounds. Seek out research from BIPOC scholars. Enroll in continuing education courses or training led by BIPOC mental health experts. “Educating yourself about diverse cultures can help you understand different perspectives to better provide culturally competent care,” said Tucker.
In addition to broader education and training, experts recommend critically examining your views and assumptions. “Evaluate your beliefs regularly and question whether those thoughts are based in fact or come from a biased perspective,” said Tucker. The more education and training you get, the easier it will be to recognize potential biases.
Even with regular education and reflection, ethnocentrism is so pervasive in psychology that it’s hard to catch every instance of it in your practice. So it’s important to account for that when caring for patients.
According to Dr. Idigo, “A collaborative approach to treatment can help mitigate the effects of unconscious biases on treatment.” That collaboration includes encouraging clients to participate in establishing treatment goals and checking in with clients regularly to find out if the treatment is considerate of their cultural and personal values.
Instead of making assumptions based on their background or identity, ask questions and engage with clients to shape a treatment plan that makes sense for that individual.
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By Rachael Green
Rachael is a New York-based writer and freelance writer for Verywell Mind, where she leverages her decades of personal experience with and research on mental illness—particularly ADHD and depression—to help readers better understand how their mind works and how to manage their mental health.
